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Articles

Ayako Rokkaku in London, 2022

Live painting with Ayako Rokkaku

On November 23, Ayako Rokkaku painted for 8 hours in London. Rewatch the livestream from start to finish.

Ayako Rokkaku, live

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Everyone possesses this power. Everyone is a dragon.

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We take jail as a metaphor. Alcatraz particularly. It's a place for people to understand prison conditions.

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 I don’t have my passport, and there is no explanation why and for how long, so it gives tremendous difficulty to the process. At the same time, our show is about freedom, ironically.

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It's the year of the dragon. Dragons wield godlike power in myths and folklore, but Ai Weiwei insists that everyone is a dragon. Here's why.

Ai Weiwei – Everyone is a dragon

Ai Weiwei – Everyone is a dragon

Growing up is a journey you take on your own.

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Grey Nail Polish

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Waiting

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American-Korean artist Grant Yun arrives in Seoul with his first solo show. The series is minimal, intricate and personal, inspired by his identity.

Grant Yun – Growing Up

Grant Yun: Growing Up

This self portrait serves as a visualisation of my ongoing struggle within the realm of reality.

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Surveillance installation at Armory NYC, 2017

Sunflower Seeds, 2010

Straight, 2008/12

With Flowers, 2015

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A guide to the symbols at play in a divine self portrait by Ai Weiwei.

Ai Weiwei: Decoded

Gunpowder is uncontrollable and transient. Is it not the same with life?

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seven-panel gunpowder on glass painting by Cai Guo-Qiang

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Cai Guo-Qiang: Explosive Serenity

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Explosive serenity is the paradox at play in Snow Lotus, a new collaboration with Cai Guo-Qiang. Hear his reflections on reflections, and discover the printmaking processes involved in transforming one of his gunpowder paintings into a limited edition print.

Cai Guo-Qiang – Explosive serenity

Cai Guo-Qiang: Snow Lotus

Abject art explores themes that challenge and disrupt our notions of cleanliness and propriety, often involving the body and bodily functions.

The term ‘abjection’ literally means ‘the state of being cast off’. It represents a multifaceted psychological, philosophical, and linguistic concept introduced by Julia Kristeva in her 1980 book Powers of Horror. 

Her ideas were partly influenced by the earlier thoughts of the French writer and surrealist dissident, Georges Bataille. Kristeva herself noted, "refuse and corpses show me what I permanently thrust aside in order to live." In practice, ‘the abject’ encompasses all bodily functions or aspects of the body that society considers impure or unsuitable for public discussion or display.

Abject Art

Art that uses shapes, colours, forms and gestures, rather than discernible figures, to create impact.

To 'abstract' literally means to separate or isolate something from something else, and it's been a central part of modern art since the early 1900s.. This term is used in art to describe works based on objects, figures, or landscapes that have been simplified or stylised, while it's also used for art that uses forms like geometric shapes or expressive marks that have no direct reference to external reality.

Abstract Art

Abstract Expressionism was the dominant art movement in the 1940s and ‘50s, characterised by gestural brushwork and emphasising spontaneity.  

During the 1940s and 1950s, Abstract Expressionism made New York City a major player in modern art. The artists had different styles but shared a commitment to using abstract art to express personal beliefs and important human values. They favoured bold, expressive abstraction, especially in large paintings. Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning were leading figures.

Abstract Expressionism

Action painting is a style where paint is applied spontaneously by dripping, splashing, or smearing onto the canvas instead of meticulous application.

In 1952, art critic Harold Rosenberg introduced the term "action painting" to characterise artists who employed bold, physically engaging gestures, departing from the conventional easel painting. Typically, the viewer can discern broad brushstrokes, drips, splashes, or other indications of the physical involvement in creating the artwork.

The label ‘action painters’ is used for artists active from the 1940s to the early 1960s, emphasising the physical act of painting as an integral aspect of the completed artwork.

Action Painting

Activist art is a label applied to art that tackles political or social concerns.

Activist art refers to creative works made by activists and social movements. It's a way of communication used by various groups and governments to inform and persuade people. Protest art can stir strong emotions and sometimes lead to more tension and chances for dissent. Art is a cost-effective method, so less financially powerful groups can use performance and street art as affordable ways to express their views.

Activist Art

Afrofuturism is a cultural style blending science fiction, history and fantasy to explore the African-American experience.

The term ‘afrofuturism’ was coined by cultural critic Mark Derry in 1993 to describe a creative approach that reimagines Black history, culture, and potential futures by blending science fiction and fantasy. Black artists across various fields, such as music, dance, painting, and literature, employ afrofuturism as a means to rediscover the past, grasp the present and envision a future shaped by their unique perspectives.

Afrofuturism

Airbrushing is a technique that uses compressed air to apply paint as a smooth and uniform surface.

An airbrush is a handheld instrument connected to a canister of compressed air, enabling controlled spraying of paint to achieve an even and consistent surface. This technique is often employed by artists and illustrators to create a high level of realism. Although the airbrush was invented in the late nineteenth century, it gained popularity as a painting tool in the mid-twentieth century.

Pioneers of airbrushing include graphic illustrators George Petty and Alberto Vargas (or Varga) in the 1930s and 1940s. Pop artist James Rosenquist later used the airbrush to evoke advertising qualities, while British artist Barrie Cook became a leading practitioner of airbrushing. In contemporary times, sci-fi artist H.R. Giger is widely associated with the use of airbrushing.

Airbrushing

An Algorithm is a set of instructions used to solve problems, perform specific tasks or make decisions.

With origins in mathematics, algorithms are now a crucial element of coding and Generative Art. Making changes to an algorithms will result in different outputs from a given input. More advanced algorithms use conditional decisions – 'automated reasoning' – to progress from intput to output. Determninistic algorithms will have a more controlled output, however some algorithms incorporate one or more randomised steps and as such have more unpredictable outcomes.

Algorithm

Analytical Cubism refers to the initial stage of Cubism, around 1908-1912, characterised by its fragmented portrayal of people and objects.

Art historians often categorise the groundbreaking explorations of Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, and Juan Gris during their cubist phase into two distinct stages. The first phase, from about 1908 to 1912, is known as ‘Analytical Cubism’. 

This term reflects the methodical deconstruction of subjects, disassembling them viewpoint by viewpoint, ultimately creating a fragmented representation with multiple perspectives and overlapping planes. Analytical Cubism is further characterised by a limited colour palette, ensuring that the structure of the form takes centre stage, and a concentration of detail at the centre of the canvas.

Analytical Cubism

Anti-art rejects conventional definitions of art and raises questions about its nature.

Associated with Marcel Duchamp and the Dada movement, Anti-art originated around 1914. Artists like Duchamp rejected established art definitions, producing works outside traditional or popular art. Anti-art, although unconventional, expanded perceptions of what could be considered art. While some completely abandoned traditional forms, others still used them, like painting and sculpture.

Art historians view Anti-art as an umbrella term encompassing various movements that aimed to break with traditional art forms and concepts. The Dada movement is often considered the earliest of these movements, seeking to create art opposing conventional definitions, aligning with the Anti-art ethos. However, Anti-art could also signify the absence of art; for instance, an empty frame might be described as an example of Anti-art.

Anti-Art

Antiquities are objects from the ancient past, usually centred on western civilisations from about 4,500 BCE to the start of the Middle Ages.

Early Antiquity features various forms of art, including advanced pottery and the invention of the potter's wheel, complex religious art like Egyptian pyramid architecture, storytelling through relief sculptures like upright stone or wooden steles, and intricate decorative art such as jewellery, ornate weaponry, mosaics, ivory carving, and pottery painting. During early Antiquity, the primary civilizations were Mesopotamia and Egypt, with additional notable cultures like Ancient Persia, which emerged around 3,500 BCE.

Antiquities

Aquatint is a printing process which creates artworks that resemble watercolour paintings by etching a copper plate with nitric acid and using resin and varnish to achieve tonal shading.

Aquatint is a printmaking technique, similar to etching, but it's used to create tones instead of lines. It's often combined with other intaglio methods. In aquatint, fine particles of acid-resistant material, like powdered rosin, are heated and attached to a printing plate. The plate is then dipped in acid, just like in etching, which eats away the metal around the particles, forming a textured pattern of small indented rings. These rings hold ink and give the illusion of shaded areas when printed. 

You can control the printed areas by using varnish on the plate, and different tones are achieved by varying the time in the acid bath – longer times create darker tones. This technique originated in France in the 1760s and became popular in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. 

Aquatint

Art brut is a French term coined by artist Jean Dubuffet, denoting ‘raw art’ and encompasses creations like graffiti and naïve art.

Jean Dubuffet rejected the dominance of academic training in fine art, which he termed "art culturel" or cultural art. In his view, "art brut," encompassing graffiti and creations by individuals like the mentally ill, prisoners, children, and primitive artists, represented unbridled expressions of vision and emotions, unconstrained by conventional norms. Dubuffet endeavoured to infuse these qualities into his own artwork, a practice sometimes associated with the term art brut.

He amassed a substantial collection of 'art brut' and, in 1948, established the Compagnie de l'Art Brut to foster its exploration. His collection is now housed in La Collection de l'Art Brut museum in Lausanne, Switzerland.

Art Brut

Art Nouveau is a global design style from the 1890s, known for its graceful, flowing lines and organic shapes inspired by natural plant forms.

Art Nouveau is an international artistic movement from the late 19th to early 20th centuries, aimed to unite various art forms and capture the intense sensory experiences of urban life. While it influenced painting and sculpture, its primary expressions were found in design, performance art, and architecture. Different regional variations bore names like Arte Nova, Glasgow Style, Stile Liberty, and Arte Modernista. The well-known version, Art Nouveau (meaning ‘New Art’ in French), thrived in France and Belgium, featuring sinuous and asymmetrical lines inspired by organic shapes.

Art Nouveau

Arte Povera (poor art) was an art movement that began in 1960s Italy that encouraged the use of common materials in sculpture.

In the late 1960s, young Italian artists sought to develop a fresh sculptural style using ordinary materials in a movement known as Arte Povera or ‘poor art’. Coined by Italian critic Germano Celant in 1967, this term encapsulated the work of these artists, as Celant identified a common revolutionary essence in their art, closely tied to the growing radical political climate in Italy. Through the use of basic, temporary materials like soil, cloth, and branches, Arte Povera artists aimed to defy and break free from the commodification of art.

Arte Povera

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a field of computer science and technology that focuses on creating systems and machines capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence. 

These tasks include problem-solving, learning, reasoning, understanding natural language, and recognizing patterns. AI systems use algorithms, data, and computational power to emulate human cognitive functions, enabling them to automate processes, make decisions, and adapt to changing circumstances.

Artificial Intelligence

Appropriation in art involves deliberate borrowing, replicating and modifying of existing images, objects and ideas as an artistic approach.

Appropriation has had a significant impact on the history of the arts – its origins can be traced back to the cubist collages and constructions of artists like Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, starting around 1912. They incorporated real objects like newspapers to represent themselves. This approach was further developed in the readymades of French artist Marcel Duchamp from 1915 – one of the most infamous examples is ‘Fountain’, a men's urinal signed, titled, and presented on a pedestal. 

Surrealism also extensively employed appropriation in collages and objects, exemplified by Salvador Dalí's Lobster Telephone. In the late 1950s, artists like Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg, as well as the pop art movement, prominently featured appropriated images and objects. 

Appropriation art raises questions about originality, authenticity, and authorship, fitting within the broader modernist tradition of art that challenges the nature and definition of art itself.

Artist Appropriation

An AP, or artist's proof, is a copy of an edition that is kept by the artist for their own personal use.

Artist's proofs are generally marked as 'AP' and are sometimes altered or hand-finished by the artist, making them more valuable to collectors. The number of artist's proofs is usually limited and separate from the main edition. They offer a glimpse into the artist's creative process and are often considered more valuable than regular edition prints.

Artist's Proof

An artist's proof, or AP, is a copy of an edition that is kept by the artist for their own personal use.

Tone refers to how dark or light a colour is. Each colour encompasses a wide range of tones that can be changed by adding black or white. 

By extension, tone can also refer to the emotional atmosphere of an artwork – created by colour or other formal elements.

Artistic Tone (AT)

An assemblage is an artistic arrangement of pre-existing elements.

The practice of assemblage in art traces its roots back to Pablo Picasso's cubist constructions, which marked the inception of his three-dimensional works in 1912. One early example is his creation "Still Life" from 1914, composed of various wood scraps and a piece of tablecloth fringe, ingeniously glued together and then painted. Picasso continued to employ assemblage intermittently throughout his artistic journey.

In 1918, the Dada artist Kurt Schwitters pioneered the use of scavenged materials to craft collages and assemblages, coining the term "merz" for this technique. Assemblage also served as the foundation for numerous surrealist artworks. Inspired by the writings of psychologist Sigmund Freud on the realms of the unconscious and dreams, surrealist artists frequently amalgamated improbable combinations of found objects, giving rise to surprising and disconcerting sculptures.

Assemblage

Auto-destructive art, coined by Gustav Metzger in the 1960s, describes radical artworks where destruction is an integral part of the creation process.

Auto-Destructive Art (ADA), deeply influenced by World War II, emerged as a response to the widespread devastation and loss caused by the conflict. Unlike World War I, this war introduced new elements like aircraft and nuclear weapons, which inspired artists to explore novel techniques involving corrosion, stress, and heat. ADA aimed to represent the war's impact and casualties, prompting artists to approach societal issues differently. To delve into these matters within an industrialised society, Metzger encouraged collaboration between artists, scientists, and engineers.

Auto-Destructive Art

Automatism involves crafting artwork without deliberate thought, tapping into the reservoir of the unconscious mind.

The term ‘automatism’ is adopted from physiology, where it denotes bodily actions that occur without conscious control, such as breathing or sleepwalking. Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud employed techniques like free association and automatic drawing or writing to delve into the unconscious thoughts of his patients.

Automatism

An autonomous system is a system that uses a non-human decision maker.

Autonomous systems have been used by humans for centuries to relinquish control, with systems of logic ranging from simple games to unfathomably complex algorithms. In the context of Generative Art, an autonomous is usually a non-human entity such as a computer program or machine. Here, the artist allows this entity to guide the final outcome – or artwork – in ways they cannot fully anticipate. Many of the results can be found on the blockchain.

Autonomous System

Avant-garde in art refers to new and experimental ideas and methods.

In the arts and literature, the avant-garde refers to a genre of art and experimental artists who create innovative and often ideologically challenging works, initially rejected by the artistic establishment of their era.

Movements such as Cubism, Fauvism, Dadaism, Expressionism, Surrealism, and more were all deemed radical during their respective periods, making them clear examples of avant-garde art.

Avant Garde

Bauhaus was a groundbreaking institution for art, architecture, and design, founded in 1919 by Walter Gropius in Weimar, Germany.

The Bauhaus teaching approach replaced the traditional teacher-student dynamic with a collaborative community of artists. Its goal was to reconnect art with everyday life, giving equal importance to architecture, performing arts, design, and applied arts alongside fine art. 

The name ‘Bauhaus’ combines the German words for ‘building’ (bau) and ‘house’ (haus), perhaps suggesting a collective effort to construct a new society. Prominent teachers included Wassily Kandinsky, Paul Klee, László Moholy-Nagy, and Josef Albers.

Bauhaus

The Ben Day process is a method in printing that creates shades of grey or different colours by using intricate ink patterns on paper.

A low-cost mechanical printing technique, developed in the late 19th century and named after its creator, illustrator and printer Benjamin Henry Day, Jr., employs small coloured dots (usually cyan, magenta, yellow, and black) placed at different intervals and blended to produce shading and various colours in images.

Ben-Day Dots

A biennial is a significant international art exhibition that takes place every two years.

Biennials are international platforms for contemporary art that occur every two years and are widely regarded as the most prominent -ennial events. In the globalised realm of contemporary art, more than 100 biennials in cities like São Paulo, Istanbul, Moscow, and Sydney vie for renowned curators and established artists. These events have evolved into sources of local pride, tourism, cultural influence, and revenue for the host cities.

The inaugural biennial event was the Venice Biennale in 1895, initially located in the Giardini, a public park. Today, the Giardini hosts thirty permanent national pavilions and numerous temporary structures. While European art initially dominated the early years, the exhibition has evolved to encompass contributions from countries across South America, Africa, Asia, and the Middle East.

Biennial

Biomorphic art, from 'bios' (life) and 'morphe' (form), relates to abstract shapes or images that resemble naturally occurring forms, such as body parts.

Despite its scientific sound, the term was initially used to describe biomorphic art in the context of the Cubism and Abstract Art exhibition of 1936 at MoMA.

Biomorphic

Biomorphism comes from the Greek ‘bios’ (life) and ‘morphe’ (form), describing abstract shapes or images that remind people of living things. 

Biomorphism is an artistic design approach that draws inspiration from patterns and forms found in the natural world and living organisms. It involves emulating these organic elements to create aesthetically pleasing and harmonious designs. At its most radical, biomorphism seeks to integrate these naturally occurring shapes into functional objects or devices, seamlessly blending art and functionality. This design philosophy celebrates the beauty and efficiency of nature's own creations.

Biomorphism

The Black Arts Movement was an art movement led by African Americans, active in the 1960s and 1970s.

The Black Arts Movement, initiated by African American artists and thinkers in the 1960s and 1970s in the United States, emerged during a period when Black people worldwide were striving for freedom and equality. This movement aimed to empower Black individuals by focusing on cultural creations such as literature, theatre, and visual arts deeply rooted in Black history and identity. 

The art produced was designed for Black audiences and was intended to be readily available, both in terms of its subject matter and its accessibility through public murals and affordable prints.

Black Arts Movement

The blockchain is a distributed and decentralised digital ledger that securely records transactions across a network of computers.

It was originally developed as the underlying technology for cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and Ethereum. In a blockchain, each transaction is verified and added to a chain of blocks, forming a transparent and tamper-resistant ledger. Blockchain technology has since found applications beyond cryptocurrencies, including supply chain management, voting systems and digital identity verification.

Blockchain

Body art is a form of art where the primary medium and focus is the human body, often that of the artist.

Body art is art that involves the human body in various forms. It includes things like tattoos, body piercings, scarification, and body painting. Body art can also be part of performance art, and it's used for exploring the body through different media like painting, casting, photography, film, and video. Some forms of body art can be quite extreme and may involve physical alterations or pushing the body to its limits.

Body Art

A caricature is a picture, description, or imitation of a person in which specific features are exaggerated, often for humorous or grotesque effect.

The term ‘caricature’ originates from the Italian word 'caricatura,' and it emerged in Italian art around 1600, notably in the work of Annibale Carracci. The term ‘caricature’ was first documented in English in 1748, the same year when William Hogarth created his notable anti-French satire 'O the Roast Beef of Old England,' featuring caricatures of a French monk and soldiers. Hogarth's use of caricature became influential in Britain, especially in political cartooning.

In the later eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, James Gillray and Thomas Rowlandson showcased genius in the practice of caricature, particularly in political and social commentary. Caricature continued to be a prominent form of expression, with figures like Max Beerbohm excelling in the nineteenth century, and Gerald Scarfe standing out as one of the most powerful contemporary caricaturists.

Caricature

A certificate of authenticity (COA) is a document that accompanies a piece of artwork to verify its authenticity.

The COA is typically issued by the artist, the gallery, or the publisher and includes details like the edition number, the size of the edition, and the materials used. It serves as a guarantee of the work's authenticity and can be important for valuation and resale. A COA provides collectors with the assurance they need when investing in a piece of art, adding credibility and value to the artwork.

Certificate of Authenticity

Charcoal is a black drawing material made of carbon, commonly used for sketching, under-drawing in paintings, and creating finished drawings.

Charcoal is typically created by heating thin willow twigs without oxygen, resulting in black, crumbly sticks. When applied to paper or fabric, it leaves a line that's denser at the pressure point and softer at the edges. 

This makes charcoal suitable for more expressive and freeform studies, although it smudges easily and is often preserved with a fixative spray. In the twentieth century, a refined form known as compressed charcoal was developed.

Charcoal Drawing

Chicano Art is a movement by Mexican-American artists to create a distinct artistic identity within the United States.

Chicano art, traditionally made by Americans of Mexican descent, is strongly influenced by the Chicano Movement in the United States, which was part of the countercultural revolution in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Artists in this movement aimed to establish a collective identity that was positive, self-determined, and challenged racial stereotypes. Many of these artists drew inspiration from Mexican muralism and pre-Columbian art.

In 1990, a significant travelling exhibition called "Chicano Art: Resistance and Affirmation" opened at Wight Gallery at the University of California, Los Angeles. According to the exhibition's advisory committee, Chicano art is a modern expression of the Mexicano people's enduring cultural, economic, and political struggle in the United States. It affirms the complex identity and vitality of the Chicano people, shaped by their experiences in the Americas.

Ayako Rokkaku, live

More in this series

Ai Weiwei – Everyone is a dragon

Grant Yun – Growing Up

Ai Weiwei: Decoded

Cai Guo-Qiang – Explosive serenity

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